15–20% of the AP exam. Key topics: Stratospheric ozone depletion: CFCs as catalytic destroyers of ozone, Ozone depletion chemistry: CFC photolysis and halogen chain reactions, Montreal Protocol (1987): international response to ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect mechanism: solar radiation absorption and infrared re-emission, Major greenhouse gases: CO2, CH4, N2O, water vapor, CFCs, Anthropogenic sources of greenhouse gas emissions, Climate change impacts: sea level rise, glacial retreat, extreme weather, Ocean warming and coral bleaching, Ocean acidification: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 chemistry and impacts on marine organisms, Climate feedback loops (ice-albedo feedback, permafrost methane release), Invasive species: pathways, ecological impacts, and management, Endangered species and extinction drivers (HIPPO framework), CITES (1973): international wildlife trade regulation, Endangered Species Act (ESA, 1973): US domestic protections, Human impacts on biodiversity: habitat loss, overexploitation, pollution, climate change.
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