16–24% of the AP exam. Key topics: Globalization and its political consequences, Economic liberalization: privatization, deregulation, market reforms, Structural adjustment programs and IMF/World Bank conditionality, Industrialization, deindustrialization, and economic modernization, Demographic change: population growth, urbanization, migration, Immigration and its political effects, Environmental policy and sustainability challenges, Social welfare policy and the state's redistributive role, Supranational organizations: EU, WTO, World Bank, IMF, Comparative development indicators: HDI, Gini coefficient, GDP per capita, Freedom House scores, Oil-dependent economies and resource curse dynamics (Nigeria, Russia, Iran), China's state-directed capitalism and economic liberalization without political pluralism.
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